艾媒咨询 | 2025年中国婴幼早教市场发展状况及用户行为调查数据

　在育儿观念革新与数字化浪潮的双重推动下，中国婴幼早教市场的发展态势与用户行为特征成为行业焦点。根据全球领先的新经济产业第三方数据挖掘和分析机构iiMedia Research（艾媒咨询）发布的《2025年中国婴幼早教市场发展状况及用户行为调查数据》数据显示，2024年中国0-3岁婴幼儿托育市场规模为1518.1亿元。未来随着中国居民的收入水平和生活水平的提高及对教育的重视程度增加，预计2030年时中国0-3岁婴幼儿托育市场规模将达2323.1亿元。在2025年中国婴幼早教用户为孩子报名早教课程情况中，90.51%的婴幼早教用户表示为孩子报名过早教课程，大量家长十分关注婴幼早教课程，这显现出中国婴幼早教市场的庞大用户基群。在2025年中国婴幼早教用户为孩子报名的早教课程类型中，英语类课程占比最高，达到49.45%，显示出婴幼早教用户对英语教育的高度重视。其次是数学、思维类课程，占比为43.03%，反映出婴幼早教用户对孩子逻辑思维能力的培养同样重视。在2025年中国婴幼早教用户希望孩子通过早教机构学到的能力中，最突出的是“良好的习惯”，占比高达35.02%。其次是“培养孩子自信心”，占比为34.40%。这表明婴幼早教用户们希望自己的孩子在早教机构中能培养出个人良好的行为习惯和个人自信自尊的培养。艾媒咨询分析师认为，未来，随着科技进步与家长需求的进一步升级，婴幼早教市场将呈现多元化、智能化发展趋势。企业需精准把握用户需求，提升服务质量，创新课程体系，以在激烈的市场竞争中脱颖而出。
Driven by both the innovation of parenting concepts and the digital wave, the development trend and user behavior characteristics of China's infant and early childhood education market have become the focus of the industry. According to the latest "iiMedia Report | Survey data on the development status and user behavior of China's infant and toddler early education market in 2025" released by iiMedia Research, a globally leading third-party data mining and analysis institution for the new economy industry, the scale of China's infant and toddler care market aged 0-3 years old will be 151.81 billion yuan in 2024. In the future, with the improvement of Chinese residents' income levels and living standards and the increasing emphasis on education, it is estimated that the market size of infant and toddler care for children aged 0-3 in China will reach 232.31 billion yuan by 2030. In the situation of Chinese infant and early childhood education users signing their children up for early childhood education courses in 2025, 90.51% of the infant and early childhood education users indicated that they had signed their children up for early childhood education courses.A large number of parents are very concerned about infant and early childhood education courses, which shows the huge user base of the Chinese infant and early childhood education market. Among the types of early education courses that Chinese infant and toddler early education users signed up for their children in 2025, English courses accounted for the highest proportion, reaching 49.45%, demonstrating the high attention that infant and toddler early education users attach to English education. Secondly, there are mathematics and thinking courses, accounting for 43.03%, which reflects that early childhood education users also attach great importance to the cultivation of children's logical thinking ability. Among the abilities that Chinese infant and early childhood education users hope their children can acquire through early education institutions in 2025, the most prominent one is "good habits", accounting for as high as 35.02%. The second is "cultivating children's self-confidence", accounting for 34.40%. This indicates that infant and toddler early education users hope that their children can develop good personal behavioral habits and personal confidence and self-esteem in early education institutions. Analysts from iiMedia Research believe that in the future, with the advancement of technology and the further upgrading of parents' demands, the infant and early childhood education market will show a diversified and intelligent development trend. Enterprises need to accurately grasp user demands, improve service quality and innovate the curriculum system in order to stand out in the fierce market competition.

艾媒咨询 | 2025-2026年中国婴幼儿托育市场运行数据及趋势报告

随着生育政策调整，许多家庭尤其是双职工家庭面临婴幼儿照护的现实困境。国家卫生健康委提出规划目标，至2025年，中国每千人口拥有的3岁以下婴幼儿托位数将达到4.5个，并新增普惠性托位66万个。iiMedia Research（艾媒咨询）数据显示， 2024年中国婴幼儿托育市场规模达1518.1亿元，预计到2030年将进一步攀升至2323.1亿元。问卷调研显示，近半数家长对托育服务有需求。受访者对当前婴幼儿托育服务不满意的首要因素包括费用高（37.89%）和师资力量不足（35.79%）；与此同时，托育机构的安全性与环境设施等问题也引发普遍顾虑。未来，托育机构需重点从“降成本、强师资、保安全”三方面着手，提升用户信任度与满意度。
With the adjustment of the fertility policy, many families, especially dual-income families, are facing the practical predicament of infant and toddler care. The National Health Commission has set a planning goal that by 2025, the number of childcare places for children under the age of 3 per 1,000 people in China will reach 4.5, and an additional 660,000 inclusive childcare places will be added. iiMedia Research data shows that shows that the scale of China's infant and toddler care market reached 151.81 billion yuan in 2024 and is expected to further rise to 232.31 billion yuan by 2030. A questionnaire survey shows that nearly half of the parents have a demand for childcare services. The primary factors that respondents are dissatisfied with regarding the current infant and toddler care services include high costs (37.89%) and insufficient teaching staff (35.79%). Meanwhile, issues such as the safety and environmental facilities of childcare institutions have also raised widespread concerns. In the future, childcare institutions need to focus on three aspects: reducing costs, strengthening teaching staff, and ensuring safety, to enhance users' trust and satisfaction.

艾媒咨询 | 2024年中国母婴市场发展状况与消费者调研报告

受三孩政策驱动，中国生育率有望得到提升，政策及相关配套措施落地将带动母婴消费新增量。全球新经济产业第三方数据挖掘和分析机构iiMedia Research（艾媒咨询）最新发布的《2024年中国母婴市场发展状况与消费者调研报告》数据显示，中国母婴行业市场规模逐年稳步增长，2023年达66478亿元，预计2027年将达到89149亿元，呈现显著的上升趋势。
Driven by the three-child policy, China's fertility rate is expected to be increased, and the landing of policies and related supporting measures will drive new increases in maternal and infant market. According to the latest "China Maternal and Infant Market Development and Consumer Research Report in 2024" released by iiMedia Research, a third-party data mining and analysis institution in the global new economy industry, the market size of China's maternal and infant industry has grown steadily year by year, reaching 6,647.8 billion yuan in 2023. It is expected to reach 8914.9 billion yuan in 2027, showing a significant upward trend.

艾媒咨询 | 2025年中国托育行业消费行为调查数据

在全球范围内，0-3岁婴幼儿的托育服务已成为各个国家或地区高度重视的家庭政策议题, 并被上升为公共服务体系建设的一部分。随着中国实施“三孩生育政策”，对婴幼儿托育行业的需求正在不断增加，更多家长会考虑将孩子送到托育机构。根据全球领先的新经济产业第三方数据挖掘和分析机构iiMedia Research（艾媒咨询）最新发布的《2025年中国托育行业发展状况及消费行为调查数据》数据显示，2024年中国0-3岁婴幼儿托育市场规模为1518.1亿元，预计2030年中国0-3岁婴幼儿托育市场规模达2323.1亿元。调研数据显示，居住地附近缺乏合适的玩伴或教育环境的需求以39.29%的占比位居首位，凸显了家长对儿童成长环境的高度关注。与此同时，让孩子提前适应集体生活和通过早期教育开发孩子能力的需求均以35.71%的占比并列第二，反映出家长对孩子社交能力培养和早期智力发展的同等重视。在托育机构选择方面，社区托育机构以45.54%的占比成为家长的首选，体现了他们对便捷性和社区归属感的偏好；公办托育机构则以43.08%的占比紧随其后，进一步印证了家长对公办机构专业性和规范性的信任与青睐。艾媒咨询分析师认为，家长对儿童早期教育和社交能力培养的重视推动了托育需求的增长，同时政策支持和社会资本的涌入也为市场注入了活力。然而，托育市场仍面临着服务质量参差不齐、师资力量不足等挑战。未来，随着标准化建设和科技赋能，托育市场将朝着更专业、更智能、更普惠的方向发展，成为解决家庭育儿难题的重要支撑。
Globally, childcare services for infants and toddlers aged 0-3 have become a highly valued family policy issue in various countries or regions and have been elevated to a part of the public service system construction. With the implementation of the "three-child fertility policy" in China, the demand for the infant and toddler care industry is constantly increasing, and more parents will consider sending their children to care institutions. According to the latest "Survey data on the development status and consumer behavior of China's childcare industry in 2025" released by iiMedia Research, a globally leading third-party data mining and analysis institution for the new economy industry, the market size of childcare for infants and toddlers aged 0-3 in China will be 151.81 billion yuan in 2024. It is estimated that the market size of infant and toddler care for children aged 0-3 in China will reach 232.31 billion yuan by 2030. Research data shows that the demand for a lack of suitable playmates or educational environments near one's residence ranks first with a proportion of 39.29%, highlighting parents' high concern about their children's growth environment. Meanwhile, the demands for children to adapt to collective life in advance and for developing children's abilities through early education both accounted for 35.71% and tied for second place, reflecting parents' equal emphasis on the cultivation of children's social skills and early intellectual development. In terms of the selection of childcare institutions, community-based childcare institutions, with a proportion of 45.54%, have become the first choice for parents, reflecting their preference for convenience and a sense of community belonging. Public childcare institutions followed closely with a proportion of 43.08%, further confirming parents' trust and favor for the professionalism and standardization of public institutions. Analysts from iiMedia Research believe that parents' emphasis on early childhood education and the cultivation of social skills has driven the growth of the demand for childcare services. Meanwhile, policy support and the influx of social capital have also injected vitality into the market. However, the childcare market still faces challenges such as uneven service quality and insufficient teaching staff. In the future, with the construction of standardization and the empowerment of technology, the childcare market will develop in a more professional, intelligent and inclusive direction, becoming an important support for solving the problems of family child-rearing.

艾媒咨询 | 2025年H1中国奶粉行业运行数据监测半年报

2025年，中国奶粉行业在复杂环境下不断探索前行，上半年的发展呈现出一系列新特征与新趋势。全球新经济产业第三方数据挖掘和分析机构iiMedia Research（艾媒咨询）最新发布的《2025年H1中国奶粉行业运行数据监测半年报》数据显示，2024年中国羊奶粉市场规模为192.5亿元，同比增长15.20%，预计2028年将突破350亿元。艾媒咨询分析师认为，中国奶粉行业细分赛道百花齐放，羊奶粉、有机奶粉等增长潜力持续释放，儿童奶粉、女性奶粉、中老年奶粉等细分品类快速崛起，拓展了行业增长空间。
In recent years, China's infant formula industry has undergone numerous changes and challenges. Profound market adjustments and dynamic changes have become the main theme of the industry's development. Since 2020, affected by multiple factors such as the continuous decline in the birth rate and the increasingly rational consumer market, the milk powder industry has bid farewell to its past period of rapid growth. The growth rate of the market size has slowed down, and in some years, it has even shown a contraction trend. Entering 2025, the industry has continued to explore and move forward in a complex environment. The development in the first half of the year has presented a series of new features and trends. According to the latest "Semi-annual report on the operation data monitoring of China's milk powder industry in the first half of 2025" released by iiMedia Research, a third-party data mining and analysis institution for the global new economy industry, the market size of goat milk powder in China was 19.25 billion yuan in 2024, with a year-on-year growth of 15.20%. It is expected to exceed 35 billion yuan in 2028. Analysts from iiMedia Research believe that the Chinese infant formula industry features a diverse range of sub-sectors. The growth potential of goat milk powder and organic milk powder continues to be unleashed, while sub-categories such as children's milk powder, women's milk powder, and milk powder for the middle-aged and elderly are rising rapidly, expanding the industry's growth space.

艾媒咨询 | 2025年中国音乐教育市场发展状况与用户行为调查数据

在素质教育理念普及与居民消费升级的驱动下，中国音乐教育市场展现出蓬勃发展的活力。根据全球领先的新经济产业第三方数据挖掘和分析机构iiMedia Research（艾媒咨询）最新发布的《2025年中国音乐教育市场发展状况与用户行为调查数据》数据显示，2024年中国兴趣教育行业规模为2840.0亿元，预计2025年中国兴趣教育行业规模将增长至3237.6亿元，表明随着人们生活水平提高及对自我提升需求的增加，兴趣教育市场不断扩大，行业发展前景广阔。在2025年中国用户喜爱的音乐类型中，国风音乐以37.92%的占比位居榜首，成为最受欢迎的音乐类型；流行音乐以37.11%的占比紧随其后，位列第二。
整体来看，国风和流行音乐最受欢迎。在2025年中国用户学习音乐主要原因中，占比最高的是“培养孩子兴趣”，达到30.09%。其次是“提升自身涵养”，占比为28.88%，第三为“增加一门特长”，占比为27.26%。显示出用户对于音乐培训的多重需求。艾媒咨询分析师指出，未来中国音乐教育市场将在教学模式上加速线上线下融合，打造“OMO”教学新生态，实现优势互补；在需求端，随着“双减”政策持续推进，素质教育需求进一步释放，低龄化、终身化学习趋势将更加明显；技术创新将贯穿教学全流程，推动课程内容个性化定制、教学过程智能化管理，提升教学效率与质量。企业需在师资建设、课程研发、技术应用等方面构建核心竞争力，以应对日益激烈的市场竞争。
Driven by the popularization of the concept of quality-oriented education and the upgrading of residents' consumption, the Chinese music education market has demonstrated vigorous development vitality. According to the latest "Survey data on the development status and user behavior of China's music education market in 2025" released by iiMedia Research, a globally leading third-party data mining and analysis institution for the new economy industry, the scale of China's interest education industry was 284 billion yuan in 2024. It is estimated that the scale of China's interest education industry will grow to 323.76 billion yuan by 2025, indicating that with the improvement of people's living standards and the increasing demand for self-improvement, the interest education market is constantly expanding and the industry has broad prospects for development. Among the music genres favored by Chinese users in 2025, Chinese-style music topped the list with a proportion of 37.92%, becoming the most popular music genre. Pop music followed closely with a proportion of 37.11%, ranking second.
Overall, traditional Chinese style and pop music are the most popular. Among the main reasons why Chinese users learn music in 2025, the one with the highest proportion is "cultivating children's interest", reaching 30.09%. The second is "improving one's own cultivation", accounting for 28.88%, and the third is "adding a special skill", accounting for 27.26%. It shows the multiple demands of users for music training. Analysts from iiMedia Research pointed out that in the future, China's music education market will accelerate the integration of online and offline teaching models, create a new "OMO" teaching ecosystem, and achieve complementary advantages. On the demand side, as the "Double Reduction" policy continues to advance, the demand for quality-oriented education will be further released, and the trend of younger age and lifelong learning will become more prominent. Technological innovation will run through the entire teaching process, promoting personalized customization of course content and intelligent management of the teaching process, and enhancing teaching efficiency and quality. Enterprises need to build core competitiveness in aspects such as teacher construction, curriculum development, and technology application to cope with the increasingly fierce market competition.

艾媒咨询 | 2025年中国母婴市场消费行为调查数据

当下母婴产品市场机遇与挑战并存，市场规模呈稳定增长态势。但随着消费者越来越追求科学育儿，对母婴产品和服务的需求向高品质、个性化、多元化转变，不仅关注产品功能，更看重成分、配方等专业性，还期待在消费中获得情绪价值。根据全球新经济产业第三方数据挖掘和分析机构iiMedia Research（艾媒咨询）最新发布的《2025年中国母婴市场消费行为调查数据》数据显示，母婴行业的主要消费群体是怀孕中后期和1岁以下的宝妈，合计占比超过50%。同时，消费者在怀孕及育儿过程中最关注的是科学育儿知识和孕期保健知识。母婴消费者在使用各类平台时，会更注重平台的专业性、资讯真实性和互动性。新生代妈妈引领的消费升级潮流，正重塑着市场格局。母婴产品市场将在创新与变革中持续进化，不断满足家庭对高品质育儿生活的向往，成为推动社会消费升级、助力家庭幸福的重要力量，孕育出更多商业机遇与社会价值。
　Currently, the baby and maternity product market is faced with both opportunities and challenges, and the market size is showing a steady growth trend. However, as consumers increasingly pursue scientific parenting, their demands for baby and maternity products and services are shifting towards high quality, personalization, and diversification. They not only pay attention to product functions but also attach great importance to the professionalism of ingredients, formulas, etc., and also expect to obtain emotional value during consumption. According to the latest "Survey data on consumer behavior in China's maternal and infant market in 2025" released by iiMedia Research, a third-party data mining and analysis institution in the global new economy industry, the main consumer groups in the baby and maternity industry are expectant mothers in the middle and late stages of pregnancy and mothers with babies under 1 year old, with a combined proportion of over 50%. At the same time, during pregnancy and parenting, consumers are most concerned about scientific parenting knowledge and pregnancy health care knowledge. When using various platforms, baby and maternity consumers pay more attention to the professionalism, authenticity of information, and interactivity of the platforms. The consumption upgrade trend led by new-generation mothers is reshaping the market pattern. The baby and maternity product market will continue to evolve through innovation and change, continuously meet families' yearning for a high-quality parenting life, become an important force in promoting social consumption upgrading and helping family happiness, and breed more business opportunities and social value.

艾媒咨询｜2024年中国婴幼儿全面营养奶粉消费需求报告

随着新国标对婴幼儿配方奶粉营养成分的严格规范和科学优化，在婴幼儿奶粉的选择上，消费者不再满足于基础营养供给，而是愈发关注奶粉能否提供全面、均衡的营养补充。iiMedia Research（艾媒咨询）数据显示，在婴幼儿奶粉的选择上，75.1%的消费者认为营养配比科学的奶粉最能助力婴儿全面成长，高达95.2%的消费者认为婴幼儿奶粉的营养品质并不在于某一特定成分的含量高低，而在于营养成分的全面性和均衡性。随着消费观念的转变，人们对于婴幼儿营养的需求有了更深入的了解和认识，单一营养元素的竞争已经不能满足现代婴幼儿的成长需求，越来越多的家长倾向于选择高阶营养全面的婴幼儿奶粉。婴幼儿全面营养奶粉显示出巨大的市场潜力。
With the strict regulation and scientific optimization of the nutritional composition of infant formula milk powder in the new national standard, consumers are no longer satisfied with basic nutritional supply in the selection of infant formula milk powder, but are increasingly concerned about whether milk powder can provide comprehensive and balanced nutritional supplementation. According to the latest Research Report 2024 China Infant Comprehensive Nutrition Milk Powder Consumption Demand Report released by iiMedia Research, 75.1% of consumers believe that scientifically formulated infant formula can best assist in the overall growth of infants. As high as 95.2% of consumers believe that the nutritional quality of infant formula does not depend on the content of a specific ingredient, but on the comprehensiveness and balance of the nutritional components. With the transformation of consumer attitudes, people have gained a deeper understanding and recognition of the nutritional needs of infants and young children. The competition for a single nutritional element can no longer meet the growth needs of modern infants and young children. More and more parents tend to choose advanced and comprehensive infant formula. Comprehensive nutritional formula for infants and young children shows enormous market potential.

艾媒咨询｜2024-2025年中国羊奶粉市场消费趋势洞察报告

因羊奶粉拥有小分子、易吸收、不易致敏、不易长胖的天然优势，越来越多消费者开始将目光转向营养丰富的羊奶粉产品。在居民健康营养观念升级、羊奶粉市场监管规范化、以及银发一族的需求日益增长的大背景下，羊奶粉市场发展迅速升温，各大乳企龙头纷纷布局欲抢占先机。iiMedia Research（艾媒咨询）数据显示，2023年中国羊奶粉市场规模为167.1亿元，同比增长12.7%；预计2028年将突破350亿元。各年龄段羊奶粉消费类型呈现差异化，成人羊奶粉消费者中，41-60岁的中老年消费者占比更高，为69.9%；而婴幼儿配方羊奶粉消费者更多为23-40岁的中青年，占比37.5%。矿物质、维生素多与营养丰富成羊奶粉产品优势共识，54.4%消费者认为羊奶粉优势在于富含矿物质和维生素，47.9%消费群体看中羊奶粉的营养丰富。羊奶粉赛道市场扩张迅速，行业竞争激烈，产品全年龄段覆盖率加深，品类逐渐多元化。在中国老龄化已成趋势、消费者品质需求升级大背景下，奶源地的建设与供应链的完善，是企业在未来羊奶粉市场的竞争中领先致胜的关键与核心。
Due to the natural advantages of goat milk powder, such as small molecules, easy absorption, low allergenicity, and low likelihood of causing weight gain, an increasing number of consumers are turning their attention to nutrient-rich goat milk powder products. Against the backdrop of an upgrade in residents' health and nutrition concepts, standardization in the goat milk powder market regulation, and a growing demand from the elderly population, the goat milk powder market is rapidly heating up. Leading dairy enterprises are actively positioning themselves to seize first-mover advantage.According to data from iiMedia Research , the size of China's goat milk powder market was 16.71 billion yuan in 2023, representing a year-on-year growth rate of 12.7%. It is projected to exceed 35 billion yuan by 2028. Consumption patterns for goat milk powder vary across different age groups: among adult consumers, those aged between 41-60 account for a higher proportion at 69.9%, while young and middle-aged consumers aged between 23-40 make up 37.5% of consumption.Minerals and vitamins are widely recognized as key strengths contributing to the nutritional richness of goat milk powder products; with approximately 54.4% of consumers acknowledging its mineral and vitamin content as advantageous factors while around 47.9% value its overall nutritional richness.The rapid expansion in the competitive landscape within the goat milk powder market has led to fierce industry competition with product coverage expanding across all age groups and categories gradually diversifying.In light of China's aging population trend and rising consumer demands for quality upgrades, it is imperative that companies focus on establishing dairy sources and enhancing supply chains as critical components for leading future competition within the goat milk powder market.

艾媒咨询 | 2025年中国在线考试SaaS消费者行为调查数据

在线考试 SaaS 平台，是基于软件即服务（SaaS）这一云计算服务模式搭建的平台。通过互联网，以浏览器为载体，将在线考试相关应用程序交付给终端用户。近年来，人工智能、大数据等前沿技术的融入，进一步推动平台在智能监考、精准学情分析等方面取得突破，应用场景不断拓展至职业资格认证、大规模招生考试等严肃场景。根据全球新经济产业第三方数据挖掘和分析机构iiMedia Research（艾媒咨询）最新发布的《2025年中国在线考试SaaS用户行为调查数据》数据显示，32.06% 的用户高频使用在线考试功能，凸显其作为平台核心功能的地位，反映出用户对在线考试这一基础且关键功能的强烈依赖，也意味着企业要持续优化该功能，确保考试流程顺畅、体验良好。而产品功能与需求匹配度以 26.84% 占比居首，直接表明用户挑选产品时，实用价值远超其他因素。这警示企业在产品研发与迭代时，需深度调研不同用户群体需求，无论是教育机构、企业还是政府部门，都要做到功能精准对接，避免功能冗余或缺失，通过精准匹配需求来提升产品竞争力与用户忠诚度。艾媒咨询分析师认为，中国市场凭借庞大教育与企业用户基数、政策支持、技术进步等优势，增长潜力巨大。尽管面临技术瓶颈、安全隐患、市场竞争等挑战，但随着智能化、个性化、跨行业融合、国际化等趋势推进，行业有望在规范中持续创新发展。
Online exam SaaS platform, is based on the software as a service (SaaS) this cloud computing service model built platform. Through the Internet, with the browser as the carrier, the online exam related applications are delivered to the end user. In recent years, the integration of cutting-edge technologies such as artificial intelligence and big data has further promoted the platform to make breakthroughs in intelligent invigilation and accurate learning analysis, and the application scenarios have been continuously expanded to serious scenarios such as professional qualification certification and large-scale enrollment exams. According to the latest "Data from the China online exam SaaS user behavior survey in 2025" released by iiMedia Research, a third-party data mining and analysis institution in the global new economy industry, 32.06% of users frequently use online exam function, highlighting its status as a core function of the platform. Reflecting users' strong reliance on this fundamental and critical function of online testing, it also means that enterprises must continue to optimize this function to ensure a smooth test process and a good experience. The matching degree of product function and demand takes the first place with 26.84%, which directly indicates that when users choose products, the practical value far exceeds other factors. This warns enterprises that in product development and iteration, it is necessary to deeply investigate the needs of different user groups, whether it is educational institutions, enterprises or government departments, to achieve accurate functional docking, avoid functional redundancy or loss, and enhance product competitiveness and user loyalty by accurately matching needs. Analysts from IIMedia Consulting believe that the Chinese market has huge growth potential with its huge education and enterprise user base, policy support, technological progress and other advantages. Despite the challenges such as technical bottlenecks, security risks, and market competition, the industry is expected to continue to innovate and develop in the norms with the advancement of intelligent, personalized, cross-industry, integration, and internationalization.